Resources

Websites

• Arbico Organics
• Biocontrol UC Riverside
• Biological Control Cornell University
• Insect Images
• National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service
• Nature's Control
• UC IPM Online
• USDA Agricultural Research Service
• USDA Whitefly Knowledgebase Natural Control
• USDA Whitefly Knowledgebase Parasitoids
• Whitefly Control

For further reading:

• Conservation and evaluation of natural enemies
• Biological control using predators and parasitoids
• Biological control of Bemisia tabaci with fungi
• Biological control of greenhouse whitefly: how does it work?
• Colonization of tomato greenhouses by predatory mirid bugs
• Greenhouse IPM: Sustainable whitefly control

Biological Control of Whiteflies

Whiteflies are susceptible to several biological control measures, including parasitism, predation, and pathogenic depredation. Some common biological control agents are listed below.

Parasitoids. Two genera of parasitic wasp, Encarsia and Eretmocerus, are primary parasitoids of whiteflies. Adult female parasitoids deposit their eggs in the whitefly nymph, and the immature parasitoids develop within and consume the body of the whitefly host. Each adult female wasp can lay several eggs per day during its two- to four-week lifespan. Parasitoids are most effective where insecticide use is limited, and efficacy rates can vary depending on crop and ecological conditions.

Predators. Whiteflies are subject to predation by insects of several families:

• Anthocoridae (Order: Hemiptera)
• Chrysopidae (Order: Neuroptera)
• Coccinellidae (Order: Coleoptera)
• Coniopterygidae (Order: Neuroptera)
• Lygaeidae (Order: Hemiptera)
• Miridae (Order: Hemiptera)
• Nabidae (Order: Hemiptera)

Many species, except for some green lacewing species (Chrysopidae), are predatory as immatures and adults. Some predators are commercially available for release in greenhouse and field crops, and include Delphastus pusillus (Coccinellidae), Macrolophus caliginosus (Miradae), Chrysoperla carnea (Chrysopidae), and Chrysoperla rufilabris (Chrysopidae).

Pathogens. Commonly observed fungal pathogens of whitefly include:

• Aschersonia aleyrodis: A pathogen specific to whiteflies that infects and kills nymphs and pupae.
• Paecilomyces fumosoroseus: A broad-range pathogen that attacks over 40 species of insect, including whitefly. Infects eggs, nymphs, pupae, and adults. Commercially available.
• Verticillium lecanii: A pathogen that attacks aphids, scales, thrips, and whiteflies. Can infect all stages of whitefly, but infection rates of eggs and adults are low. Commercially available.
• Beauveria bassiana: An occasional pathogen of whitefly in agroecosystems, generally infecting nymphs and adults. Commercially available.

Fungal pathogens are most effective at certain temperature and humidity levels, which favors their use in controlled environments such as greenhouses.

Sources:

Cappaert, David. 2006. Michigan State University. Bugwood.org.
http://www.insectimages.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=2133029

Clark, Jack Kelly. 2000. UC Statewide IPM Project.
http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/NE/encarsia_formosa.html

Dykinga, Jack. 2006. Image K7549-7.
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/apr06/whitefly0406.htm

Hoddle, Mark. 1999 'The Biology and Management of Silverleaf Whitefly, Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on Greenhouse Grown Ornamentals.'
http://www.biocontrol.ucr.edu/bemisia.html

McAuslane, H. 1997. Featured Creatures. University of Florida.
http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/veg/leaf/silverleaf_whitefly.htm

University of Florida. 'Red, Aschersonia aleyrodis, and yellow, A. goldiana, Aschersonia fungi attacking immature whiteflies.'
http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/citrus/cloudy_wfly04.htm

Unknown. 'Whitefly Control.'
http://www.syngenta-bioline.co.uk/controldocs/html/EretmocerusMundus.htm

© 2009 Lisa Moore, Entomology Dept., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.